Animal welfare in the dairy industry

Setting the scene

In 2006/07, Australians consumed an average of 104 litres of milk and 12 kilograms of cheese each(1). Every year, around 1.8 million cows produce over 5000 litres of milk to supply domestic and international demand for dairy products(2). Dairy production in Australia is largely pasture-based which means that dairy cows graze in paddocks and are supplementary fed with grains, hay and silage when necessary. Most dairy farms are found in the higher rainfall areas along the coast although a significant number of farms in Victoria and New South Wales rely on irrigation for pasture growth. By far the greatest number of dairy cattle are located in Victoria, followed by New South Wales and Queensland(3). Some dairy farms are not pasture-based and rely entirely on hand feeding cows in large sheds in a system where cows have no access to pasture. In 2006/07, the production of wholemilk was Australia’s second largest rural industry valued at $3.2 billion, just above wheat for grain production at $2.5 billion but well behind cattle and calves slaughterings valued at $8.0 billion(4)

Animal welfare issues in the dairy industry

The dairy industry has identified five key welfare issues: bobby calves, calving induction, tail docking, lameness and dehorning/disbudding(5). RSPCA Australia believes that these and other issues are a key concern and need to be urgently addressed:

Bobby calves – a by-product of dairy farming
Bobby calves – housing and rearing
Bobby calves – handling, transport, assembly and slaughter
Calving induction
Disbudding and dehorning of dairy calves/cows
Tail docking of dairy cows
Lameness
Mastitis
Live export of dairy heifers

Bobby calves – a by-product of dairy farming

Cows have to give birth to a calf every year in order to produce milk. In the dairy industry, most calves are separated from their mother within 12 hours of birth to reduce the risk of infection and/or spread of disease. Research suggests that separating cow and calf within 24 hours of birth is the least stressful for both cow and calf(6).

All bull calves (males) and a percentage of heifer calves (females) are considered to be a by-product of dairy farming. Those classed as ‘bobby calves’ are separated from their mother at less than a day old and sold, often for slaughter, at less than five days old. 918,900 calves were slaughtered in Australia in 2006/07 with around 575,000 of these being killed in Victoria alone(7).

Bobby calves – housing and rearing

Once separated from their mother, bobby calves are transferred to a shed where they are supplemented with colostrum and then fed milk or milk-replacer, usually once a day.

About one quarter of heifer calves are retained annually as replacements for older cows that are culled from the herd. Replacement heifers may be reared on the property or by a professional calf rearer on a different property until they are old enough to join the herd.

A small percentage of bull calves are also retained and are reared for up to nine months for veal production. Some dairy farmers mate their cows to beef breeds so that calves produce better veal.

Because bobby calves are destined for slaughter at a very early age, they are generally not treated with the same consideration as the more valuable replacement heifers or bull calves for rearing. Housing facilities, bedding, cleanliness and general care can vary considerably depending on the calf’s purpose.

Bobby calves – handling, transport, assembly and slaughter

Young calves destined for slaughter are required to be in their fifth day of life before being transported to the abattoir. Dairy farmers sign a National Vendor Declaration declaring calf age and whether the calf is fit and sound enough to travel. A truck will collect calves from the dairy farm twice a week during calving season and deliver them to a central collection point (calf scale) or directly to the abattoir. Calves delivered to a calf scale are collected and then transported to the abattoir. The Model Code of Practice for the Welfare of Animals: Cattle states that bobby calves should not be transported for more than 10 hours and should be slaughtered on the day of arrival at the abattoir(8). However, anecdotal evidence suggests that this does not always occur.

Once slaughtered, the calf is processed for human consumption (e.g. veal, baby food and processed meat) with the hide used in the high-value leather market. Other by-products derived from calves are used in the pharmaceutical market (e.g. the calf’s stomach may be used in the production of tablets).

Animal welfare issues relating to the handling, transport, assembly and slaughter of bobby calves include:

• Young calves are physiologically incapable of withstanding the stress, strain and rigours of transport.
• Young calves do not yet have the following behaviour required for easy loading and unloading – this may result in rough handling.
• It is difficult to accurately determine the calf’s age, making it difficult to ensure compliance with the minimum age requirement for transport.
• Trucks provide calves with little protection from the elements, no bedding and little room to lie down.
• Holding yards at calf scales and abattoirs are concrete or dirt-floored with no bedding and no protection from the elements.
• Young calves are deprived of milk for extended periods.

Calving induction

If a pregnant cow’s due date falls outside the desired time for calving, the dairy farmer may decide to induce the calf, causing it to be born prematurely. Cows will then return to close-to-normal production and fertility in the next mating season and their calves will be born within the required calving span(9) Induction mimics natural calving and is done by injecting the cow with a corticosteroid hormone which stimulates final udder development and prepares the reproductive tract for birth(10). Induced cows will calve between eight to fourteen days later. There are, however, problems with the technique of calving induction.

Animal welfare issues relating to calving induction include(11)

• Calf death – calves born dead or having to be killed because they are not viable.
• Method of euthanasia – blunt trauma to the head is used to kill unviable calves.
• Maternal death – death of the cow as a result of infection due to retained foetal membrane.
• Retained foetal membrane – the foetal membrane is not expelled after birth.
• Calving difficulty – smaller calves may not be positioned correctly at calving.
• Photosensitisation – increased sensitivity to ultraviolet light causing sunburn on the cow’s teats.

Disbudding and dehorning of dairy calves/cows

Disbudding is the removal of the horn bud before it attaches to the animal’s skull, whereas dehorning is removal of the horn once it has attached to the skull. The practice is performed on many dairy farms to reduce the incidence of bruising and potential injury to other animals or people. Dairy Australia recommends disbudding using heat cauterisation as soon as the horn bud appears(12) .

Animal welfare issues associated with disbudding or dehorning:

• Disbudding and dehorning results in acute pain.
• Both disbudding and dehorning are performed without the use of anaesthetic or pain relief and often without effective restraint of the calf.

Tail docking of dairy cows

Routine tail docking of up to two-thirds of the cow’s tail at 12-18 months old, was introduced mainly for the benefit of the milker but also in the belief that tail docking reduces the risk of mastitis, improves milk quality, leaves udders cleaner and reduces fly numbers(13). However, there is no evidence that supports these beliefs(14). Dairy Australia surveyed dairy farmers in 2005 and found that tail docking is on the decline with farmers trimming the switch rather than docking the tail(15); with around 16% of farmers still routinely tail docking their cows(16).

Animal welfare issues associated with tail docking of dairy cows(17):

• Tails are docked using a rubber ring, a sharp knife or a hot docking iron. The procedure is performed without the use of anaesthetic or pain relief. The cow experiences acute pain.
• The cow may experience chronic pain due to inflammation and lesions caused by the procedure. Neuromas (nerve tumours) are also a cause of chronic pain.
• Shortening the tail prevents the cow from swatting at flies, resulting in an increased number of flies around the hind quarters as well as the cow using other fly-avoidance behaviours.

Lameness

Foot lameness is a common problem in dairy farming and not unusual in wet conditions. It can be caused by cows having to walk long distances from paddock to dairy parlour – particularly if these tracks are not well-maintained – and by standing on concrete floors for long periods. This results in the soles of the feet becoming overworn and bruised, or stones becoming embedded in between the toes. However, it is also related to nutrition and abnormalities in conformation and to impatient stockhandling.

Animal welfare issues associated with lameness in dairy cows(18):

• Lameness is painful.
• Lameness causes an animal to eat less and lie down more, resulting in loss of body condition.

Mastitis

Mastitis is an infection of the cow’s udder caused by bacteria or by injury, and can affect up to 40% of the herd(19). Occurrence is related to hygiene and other procedures at milking as well as nutrition. Mastitis is not always easy to detect, particularly because most cases are sub-clinical and the redness and swelling of the udder is not obvious.

Animal welfare issues associated with mastitis:

• The swelling and inflammation of the udder causes severe pain.
• Cows exhibit clear signs of discomfort, including abnormal posture, increased sensitivity, rapid breathing and heart rate, and elevated temperature.
• May cause the death of the cow.

Live export of dairy heifers

In 2005, nearly 50,000 dairy heifers were exported for breeding purposes mainly to China and Mexico, but also to customers in Turkey, Pakistan, Russia, Saudi Arabia and Jordan(20). Close to 90% of these heifers originate from Victoria and are exported through the port of Portland. Heifers may be either pregnant or not and are usually between 12 and 15 months old.

Animal welfare issues associated with the live export of heifers

• Standards for the export of livestock(21) do not distinguish between slaughter cattle and dairy cattle for breeding in terms of stocking density and transport conditions.
• Export standards allow pregnant animals to travel in their third trimester of pregnancy.
• Transport is stressful to animals – a lowered immune system contributes to respiratory disease.
• Animals are subjected to extremes of humidity and temperature and may suffer from heat stress.
• Heifers may be transported to countries where poor animal handling, transport and slaughter are routine practice.
• At their destination, heifers are susceptible to diseases that are not endemic in Australia and for which they have not been vaccinated – resulting in disease and/or mortality.

Dairy industry facts and figures

Dairy cows – milk production

67% of dairy cows in Australia are Holstein Friesian with the remainder being Jersey or Holstein/Jersey cross(22). Holstein Friesian is often the preferred breed because they have a higher milk yield and a lower protein and butterfat percentage than the other dairy breeds. A combination of genetics, nutrition and management has seen a dramatic increase in the amount of milk a cow produces each year – for example, in 1966/67 the average milk yield per cow was 2,383 litres, 40 years later in 2006/07 the average milk yield was 5,324 litres(23). Most dairy cows are milked twice a day (and sometimes three times) and, after each morning’s milking, are generally rotated among one of several available paddocks. The average lifespan of a dairy cow is six to seven years.

Dairy cows - reproduction and calving(24)

Calves in southern Australia are traditionally born in spring and autumn to match the cow’s high feed requirements to the availability of pasture. To achieve this, dairy farmers try to ensure that their cows are all on heat and mated (or artificially inseminated) at about the same time. A cow is on heat for a period of 18-36 hours every 21 days. Dairy heifers are first mated at 2 years old and the gestation length is around 280 days. A cow will generally have a 60-day ‘dry’ period prior to calving in which it is not producing milk. Following the calf’s birth, the placenta is expelled, the cow’s uterus contracts and the uterus lining returns to normal pre-calving condition. The time between calving and first heat is anywhere between 21 and 42 days. In order to help synchronise calving, dairy farmers may use hormones to manipulate the normal oestrus cycle of the cow. This also allows dairy farmers to plan calving for autumn rather than spring, or to calve in both spring and autumn, or to calve all year round – in other words, a calving pattern to suit market demand.

How you can help

Make your voice heard! Write to the Australian Government Minister for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, your State or Territory Primary Industry / Agriculture Minister or your local MP.

Contact the makers of your favourite dairy products (be they milk, yogurt or cheese). Contact details are often on the label. Tell the dairy industry that young animals should not be treated this way.

Spread the word. Write a letter to the editor of your local paper, raising awareness about the plight of bobby calves.

1. Dairy Australia, 2007, Australian Dairy Industry in Focus 2007.
2. Dairy Australia, 2007, Australian Dairy Industry in Focus 2007.
3. ABARE, 2007, Commodity Statistics 2007.
4. ABS, 2007, Value of principal agricultural commodities produced (preliminary estimates), 2006-07, Cat.no. 7501.0.
5. Dairy Australia, 2006, Dairy welfare we care, Dairy Australia, Victoria.
6. See, for example, Stehulova, I., Lidfors, L., & Spinka, M., 2008, Response of dairy cows and calves to early separation: Effect of calf age and visual and auditory contact after separation, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 110: 144-165.
7. ABS, 2007, Livestock products, 2006-07, Cat.no. 7215.0
8. Commonwealth of Australia 2004, Model Code of Practice for the Welfare of Animals: Cattle, 2nd edition, Primary Industries Standing Committee, PISC Report 85.
9. Brightling, P., Hides, S., Jubb, T., Larcombe, M. & Malmo, J., 1992, Chapter 4: Mating management. In: Dairy farming in the Macalister Irrigation District, Macalister Research Farm Cooperative
10. Mansell, P., 2007, Welfare issues of calving induction, Presentation at RSPCA Victoria Dairy Welfare Seminar, 29 August 2007, Burwood, Victoria.
11. Hides, S., 2007, Calving induction in dairy cows, Agriculture Notes AG0384, Department of Primary Industries, Victoria.
12. Dairy Australia, 2006, Dairy welfare we care, Dairy Australia, Victoria.
13. Jongman, E., 2007, The welfare consequences of tail docking, lameness and mastitis in dairy cows, Presentation at RSPCA Victoria Dairy Welfare Seminar, 29 August 2007, Burwood, Victoria.
14. See for example: Stull, C.L., Payne, M.A., Berry, S.L. and Hullinger, P.J., 2002, Evaluation of the scientific justification for tail docking in dairy cattle, Journal of the American Veterinary Association 220: 1298-1303.
15. Dairy Australia, 2006, Dairy welfare we care, Dairy Australia, Victoria.
16. Burgess, A., 2007, Dairy industry perspective on animal welfare, Presentation at RSPCA Victoria Dairy Welfare Seminar, 29 August 2007, Burwood, Victoria.
17. Jongman, E., 2007, The welfare consequences of tail docking, lameness and mastitis in dairy cows, Presentation at RSPCA Victoria Dairy Welfare Seminar, 29 August 2007, Burwood, Victoria.
18. Hemsworth, P. et al., 1995, The welfare of extensively managed dairy cattle: A review, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 42(3): 161-182 .
19. Jongman, E., 2007, The welfare consequences of tail docking, lameness and mastitis in dairy cows, Presentation at RSPCA Victoria Dairy Welfare Seminar, 29 August 2007, Burwood, Victoria.
20. MLA, 2007, The live export industry: Assessing the value of the livestock export industry to regional Australia, Meat & Livestock Australia, North Sydney.
21. Commonwealth of Australia, 2006, Australian Standards for the Export of Livestock, Version 2.1, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry, Canberra.
22. Dairy Australia, 2007, Australian Dairy Industry in Focus 2007.
23. ABARE, 2007 Commodity Statistics 2007.
24. Brightling, P., Hides, S., Jubb, T., Larcombe, M. & Malmo, J., 1992, Chapter 4: Mating management. In: Dairy farming in the Macalister Irrigation District, Macalister Research Farm Cooperative